How did people manage rivers in ancient times? Uncovering the secrets of the "River Chief System" and water civilization

The "River Chief System" is an institutional setting for the local management of rivers. Party and government leaders at all levels in the localities serve as river chiefs. With their authority, they transcend the limitations of professional management and bring rivers involving the interests of multiple parties into integrated, legal management. The river chief system has a long history and flourished. Its origin can be traced back to the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period when the Yellow River embankment was first built. It was assigned to weir chiefs, ditch chiefs, canal chiefs, sluice chiefs, and river embankment chiefs, covering river flood control and flood prevention, as well as the management of water conservancy projects such as canals, irrigation, and cities. In the management of ancient water conservancy projects, the river chief system played an important role in ensuring the safety of rivers, water resources management, and water rights protection.

The river chief system bears a distinct imprint of water civilization. By exploring the institutional design, management regulations and value orientation of the "river chief system" in the Tang, Northern Song and Jin dynasties, we can explain the inherent continuity of the system and reflect the profound background of water civilization.

Water conservancy development reached an unprecedented level in the Tang Dynasty. The framework and implementation of its water conservancy laws and regulations supported agricultural water conservancy projects and the operation of the Grand Canal, and were inherited by subsequent dynasties.

Chang'an was the capital of the Tang Dynasty. The irrigation projects of the Jing River and Wei River, as well as the Guanzhong Canal, the Bian River, and the Huaiyang Canal had the greatest impact on its politics and economy. The "canal douzhang system" of the Tang Dynasty can be found in the "Shuibu Shi". The "Shuibu Shi" was the first national water conservancy law promulgated by the central government and an important innovation in the water conservancy project management system. The "Shuibu Shi" recorded the duties of the canal douzhang: "The old canal of Hebi Palace is deep and doumen are set up to save water so that it is level and full, and the people can use it in order. The canal chief and doumen chief are still set up for inspection. If the irrigation is all-round, it should be allowed to flow as usual, and water should not be abandoned because of this." It stipulates that the "canal chief" and "doumen chief" of the irrigation project are responsible for the operation and management of the project to ensure the irrigation order and fair distribution of water. The "Shuibu Shi" also used the management of the irrigation area as a basis for the assessment and promotion of officials. The "canal douzhang system" of the "Shuibu Shi" was incorporated into the national code in the Tang Dynasty. Volume 23 of Tang Liudian records: "In the capital area, if the canals, dams, ponds and ponds are damaged or breached, they should be repaired after being repaired. Each canal and sluice gate has a chief. When irrigating fields, they should control the amount of water used and irrigate evenly. Every year, the prefecture and county send an official to supervise it, and at the end of the year, their performance is recorded as an evaluation." The accountability system was implemented in the water management of prefectures and counties. By setting up "canal sluice gate chiefs", the management authority of canal chiefs and sluice gate chiefs was clarified, strict management of water resources was implemented in irrigation areas, and through effective allocation and conservation, the needs of large-scale agricultural irrigation were met, thereby strengthening the agricultural foundation of the Tang Dynasty and promoting its prosperity and strength.

The canal chief and bucket chief system of the Tang Dynasty was commonly set up in later irrigation projects and passed down from generation to generation.

The Northern Song Dynasty inherited the water conservancy system of the Tang Dynasty. The Xining Reform led by Wang Anshi also introduced the "Farmland Interests Treaty", which promoted the construction and management of farmland water conservancy.

Since the 11th century, the Yellow River has entered the eve of a major change in course. The Northern Song Dynasty's capital was Bianjing (now Kaifeng, Henan). Floods from the Yellow River and the Bian River directly endangered the capital, so the Northern Song Dynasty attached great importance to the management of the Yellow River and poured huge manpower and material resources into river management. The main task of river management in the Northern Song Dynasty was to defend and resist flood disasters in the lower reaches of the Yellow River. The most important measures were to build embankments, block mouths, divert rivers, and reduce rivers. At the same time, great importance was attached to embankment management, and the "River Embankment System" came into being. At the national level, the "River Embankment System" with flood control as its main responsibility was established on the Yellow River and the Bian River.

According to the "Book of Rivers and Canals" in the History of the Song Dynasty, in the first month of the fifth year of the Qiande reign of Emperor Taizu Zhao Kuangyin of the Song Dynasty (967 AD), "the emperor dispatched envoys to inspect the frequent breaches of river dikes and mobilized laborers from the capital area to repair them. From then on, it became a regular practice, starting in the first month and completing them in the late spring. In this month, the emperor ordered the governors of Kaifeng, Daming, Yun, Chan, Hua, Meng, Pu, Qi, Zi, Cang, Di, Bin, De, Bo, Huai, Wei, and Zheng to concurrently serve as river dike envoys in their respective states, probably because they were cautious in their work and took flood disasters seriously." As the Yellow River repeatedly breached its banks and the capital area frequently suffered from major floods, Emperor Taizu Zhao Kuangyin of the Song Dynasty issued an edict ordering the governors of Kaifeng, Daming, Yun, Chan, Hua, Meng and other prefectures along the Yellow River to concurrently serve as "river dike envoys" for He and Bian within their jurisdiction, responsible for the repair and maintenance of dikes. This was the beginning of the implementation of the "river dike envoy system" in the Song Dynasty, laying the foundation for the management of the Yellow River dikes and the establishment of the Yellow River official system in the dynasties after the Northern Song Dynasty. The river embankment establishment and flood control management system was later extended to the Yellow River, Yangtze River, Yongding River and other rivers to protect the capital and important facilities from floods, and was used for thousands of years.

In the fifth year of Kaibao (972 AD), Zhao Kuangyin also issued an edict to set up officials in charge of river affairs, "From now on, Kaifeng and other 17 prefectures will each have a river bank judge, who will be the prefect of the prefecture; if the prefect is vacant, the prefect of the prefecture will be appointed", further strengthening the responsibility of local government officials for river and Bian defense. The prefect was directly appointed by the emperor to assist the state administration and could be regarded as a deputy prefect, but he had the power to report directly to the emperor, thus strengthening the administrative management of river defense.

In the second year of Chunhua (991 AD), Emperor Taizong Zhao Guang issued an edict: "Officials and river patrol officers must inspect river embankments and ensure that they are not damaged. Those who violate the rules will be punished by law." It stipulates that river patrol officers must inspect river works in accordance with the requirements, discover problems in a timely manner and start repairs. If the embankments are damaged but not discovered, they should be dealt with according to law. The river patrol system clearly defines the responsible parties and punishment mechanisms.

In the third year of Xianping (1000 AD), Emperor Zhenzong Zhao Heng issued an edict: "Officials along the river, even if their terms have expired, must be replaced when the water level drops. The prefects and magistrates must inspect the dikes every two months, and the county magistrates and assistants must inspect the dikes in turn. The transport envoys should not appoint them to other positions." It stipulates that if officials along the river are transferred to other positions after their terms have expired, they must wait until the water-damaged projects are repaired. The edict also requires the prefects and magistrates along the Yellow River and Bian River to inspect the dikes every two months, and the county magistrates must assist the prefects and magistrates and take turns inspecting the dikes. During this period, the transport envoys cannot arrange other work for the county magistrates, and the transport envoys are given the responsibility of inspecting the performance of river workers at all levels and recommending them for promotion.

The "River Embankment System" of the Northern Song Dynasty was issued and implemented through the emperor's edict. It had the highest authority and institutional influence. It not only covered the establishment of official positions, division of responsibilities, and task requirements, but also clarified the requirements for leaving office and the punishment mechanism. It met the needs of the Yellow River management and had a profound impact on river management in later generations.

After the "Jingkang Incident" in 1127, the Song Dynasty moved south. The confrontation between Song and Jin was roughly divided by the Huai River. Jin consolidated its rule in the north, and the Yellow River basin was basically managed by Jin. Jin inherited the river engineering management of the capital area.

In terms of water administration, the Jin Dynasty inherited the Tang and Song systems and set up a water supervisor to manage river defense. In terms of the official positions of the Yellow River, a river patrol officer system was established, stipulating that a patrol officer should be appointed for each sluice of the Yellow River, and six patrol officers should be appointed to manage 25 sluices of the entire river. The Jin Dynasty also mobilized soldiers to participate in flood prevention and river maintenance, with a total of 12,000 sluice soldiers on the entire river. In the 26th year of Dading (1186 AD), the Yellow River broke its dike in Weizhou. In view of the frequent river disasters and the insufficient number of sluice soldiers, Jin Shizong (Wanyan Yong) issued an edict to increase personnel, "The heads and deputy heads of the four prefectures and sixteen states along the river are all responsible for river defense, and the magistrates and assistants of the forty-four counties are all in charge of river defense." That is, it was stipulated that the chief and deputy administrative officials of the prefectures, states, and counties along the Yellow River should assume various management responsibilities for the Yellow River governance. The four prefectures of Nanjing, Guide, Henan, and Hezhong and the sixteen states under them, including: Huai, Tong, Wei, Xu, Meng, Zheng, Jun, Cao, Hua, Sui, Teng, Shan, Jie, Kai, Ji, and Shanzhou, and the county magistrates of the forty-four counties under the sixteen states were also required to assist in river defense.

In the second year of Emperor Zhangzong of Jin's Taihe reign (1202 AD), the River Defense Order was issued, which stipulated the river defense responsibilities of the central government, prefectures and counties. For example, before the flood season every year, the Ministry of Revenue, the Ministry of Works, and the Metropolitan Water Conservancy Bureau sent river defense inspectors, scattered river patrol officers, and river patrol officers to patrol the river defense along the river, assess the annual river maintenance, and check the preparations for the next spring maintenance. They could only return to Beijing to resume their duties after the Yellow River flowed smoothly in autumn and winter. The River Defense Order shows that the establishment of the "River Chief System" in the Jin Dynasty had a strong sense of laws and regulations. It not only strengthened the management responsibilities of the main officials of the administrative regions along the Yellow River for the Yellow River defense affairs, but also reflected the characteristics of coordinated governance of the Yellow River. Whether it was officials sent from the central government, scattered river patrol officers and river patrol officers of professional river defense agencies, or officials from prefectures, states, and counties along the Yellow River, while performing their respective duties, they played the role of decision-making, coordination, and management, and strengthened the unified management of river governance.

The "River Chief System" of the Jin Dynasty embodied the characteristics of authoritarian Yellow River flood control and prevention management in terms of institutional design. It was the origin of the mechanism in which officials with the title of censor from the Ministry of Works and the Ministry of Revenue inspected river works during the Ming and Qing dynasties, and the governor-general of the river who obeyed the emperor's orders was in charge of this system.

From the "Canal Chief System" of the Tang Dynasty, the "River Dike System" of the Northern Song Dynasty, to the "River Chief System" of the Jin Dynasty, what has changed are the changes in history and the changes of dynasties, but what has not changed is the continuation, inheritance and accumulation of the "River Chief System". It is not just the same in name, but also shows continuity in top-level design, institutional connotation, and value orientation.

Continuity of top-level design. The design of the "River Chief System" in the Tang Dynasty, Northern Song Dynasty, and Jin Dynasty all reflected the will of the state. They were all institutional arrangements at the central government level to manage rivers, irrigation areas, and canals by establishing "River Chiefs", reflecting the state's strengthening of administrative management of rivers and canals. The Tang and Jin dynasties also clarified it in the form of laws, further highlighting the status of the "River Chief System".

Continuity of institutional provisions. The "River Chief System" of the Northern Song Dynasty and the Jin Dynasty was basically the same in terms of institutional connotation. On the basis of setting up a special administrative agency for the Yellow River, the chief executive of the administrative divisions along the Yellow River was given the responsibility of flood control and management of the Yellow River. Song Taizu ordered the governors of the 17 states along the Yellow River to concurrently serve as the "river embankment envoy" of the Yellow River within the jurisdiction of the state. Jin Shizong issued an edict requiring the governors and their deputies of the 16 states along the Yellow River to be responsible for river defense. On the basis of the responsibilities given to the governors in the Northern Song Dynasty, the Jin Dynasty also made it clear that the county magistrates of the counties under each state should also assist the governor in managing the Yellow River, forming a structure of coordination and shared responsibility.

Continuity of value orientation. The "River Chief System" of the Tang Dynasty, Northern Song Dynasty, and Jin Dynasty had a common value orientation in terms of accountability, reward and punishment measures, etc. The "Can Dou Chang System" of the Tang Dynasty stipulated that at the end of each year, the prefecture and county would send officials to supervise and evaluate the chiefs of various channels and gates, and those who performed well in the evaluation would be "recorded for their merits"; during the reign of Emperor Taizong of Song Dynasty, it was stipulated that if the "River Dike Envoy" and water conservancy officials did not patrol the river seriously, and problems occurred in the Yellow River, "the offenders should be punished according to law", that is, they should be punished according to law; the "River Defense Order" of the Jin Dynasty clearly stated that before the flood season every year, the court would send river defense inspection officials and the "River Chiefs" of prefectures and counties along the Yellow River to patrol along the river, implement flood prevention measures, and check flood prevention materials. If the Yellow River was in danger, they would work together to rescue, and they had to wait until the Yellow River was calm before leaving and returning to Beijing to report and return to their posts. This management mechanism with clear rewards and punishments effectively guaranteed the implementation of the "River Chief System", and its consistency in value orientation made the "River Chief System" more historically continuous and influential.

Source: Study Times

Author: Niu Zhiqi