If Hangzhou were a super long long long long scroll!

There is nothing better than a long scroll

More suitable for showing Hangzhou

It stretches five hundred miles from east to west.

The five hundred miles of mountains and rivers are like a long scroll of ink splashing

It has been shining for five thousand years.

Five thousand years of history, the forerunner of Chinese civilization

(Please watch horizontally, Hangzhou landscape scroll, drawn by @Zhang Qi & Zheng Yi/Planet Research Institute)

▼

Outside this long picture

We also selected a large number of

Long scroll photography

To truly showcase this city

In our opinion

Hangzhou is a long scroll

It is a picture of people from ancient times to the present

The boundless scroll painted together with the landscape

01Mountain and Sea Splashing Ink

The opening of the book is a very heroic handwriting , splashing ink from the mountains

The mountains are neatly arranged

Rushing from southwest to northeast

Unfold this scroll

(Please watch in horizontal mode, Tianmu Mountain is coming, photographer @璋)

▼

Among the Mountains

There are steep peaks that are thousands of meters high.

Creating the changing mist

(Please watch in horizontal mode, Tianmu Mountain sea of ​​clouds, Qingliang Peak of Tianmu Mountain is the highest peak in Hangzhou, with an altitude of 1,787 meters, photographer @潘劲草)

▼

There are also hills hundreds of meters high

Stirring up the ink wave

(Long scroll of West Lake and mountains, photographer @肖奕叁)

▼

As for the eastern part of Hangzhou

The mountains have gradually disappeared

The unpredictable ocean dominates here

Most of the urban area of ​​Hangzhou today

Once in the ocean for a long time

(Looking over Hangzhou Bay from the sky above the city center of Hangzhou, which was once a vast ocean thousands of years ago. Photographer: @傅鼎)

▼

The sea water recedes and rises

On the surface of the earth

(Please slide to view the Earth Tree and Liuhuagou washed out by the Qiantang River tide, photographer @张扬小强&肖奕三)

▼

Mountains in the west and the sea in the east

Together we define the outline of Hangzhou

It rises from north to south with four mountains

Five hundred miles across east and west

(Please watch in horizontal mode. The location and topography of Hangzhou are shown here. From Chun'an Qinglingjiao in the west of Hangzhou to Linjiang Pier in the east of Hangzhou, the straight-line distance is nearly 250 kilometers, or 500 miles. Map by @Zheng Yi/Planetary Research Institute)

▼

When the mountains meet the sea breeze

Continue to shape the humid climate and numerous water networks

Among them, there is a famous river

Qiantang River

(Please watch in horizontal screen, Qiantang River, photographer @肖奕三)

▼

The Qiantang River Basin covers a vast area

It occupies 80% of Hangzhou’s total area

The main streams in the territory are named from upstream to downstream

Xin'an River, Fuchun River, Qiantang River

The river flows eastward

Carrying mud and sand with the tide

In the low-lying areas in the east, plains were piled up

that's all

The mountains and the sea work together to create a network of waterways throughout the country, as well as three layers of mountains, hills, and plains.

The 500-li landscape pattern of Hangzhou was established here

(Different scenery along the Qiantang River as it flows eastward, photographers @吕杰琛&蒋永明&田卓然&肖奕三&朱叶川)

▼

Five thousand years ago

Liangzhu ancestors settled in Hangzhou

Continue to add a strong touch to this place

The Liangzhu people can be called the "infrastructure maniacs" of prehistoric times

They used more than ten dams

It formed the largest dam system in the world at that time

The floating city consists of the palace area, inner city and outer city.

The area is equivalent to 9 Forbidden City in Beijing

Densely crisscrossed rivers form a "highway network"

People paddle boats back and forth

(Please watch in horizontal mode, the reconstruction of the Liangzhu ancient city, the total area of ​​the palace area, inner city and outer city is 6.3 square kilometers, map by @刘志鹏&郑伯蓉&陈志浩/Planetary Research Institute)

▼

Strong power, advanced civilization

Allowing the Liangzhu people to lead an early state

Be the first to open the door to civilization on behalf of China

Shining among the ancient civilizations of the world

Become the evidence of China's 5,000-year history of civilization

(Distribution of the main sites of Liangzhu culture. Around 5,000 years ago, the world's major river basins began to develop early state forms and urban civilizations. Map by @Zheng Yi/Planetary Research Institute)

▼

Five hundred miles of mountains and rivers, five thousand years of civilization

Created a strong atmosphere in Hangzhou

But if there is only the splash of ink on the mountains and seas

Not enough to describe Hangzhou

And its finishing touch

It must be West Lake

02The highlight of West Lake

West Lake

Three sides of the mountain and one side of the city

Hangzhou city was built along the West Lake.

(Please watch in horizontal mode, West Lake in Hangzhou, with mountains on three sides and a city on one side, photographer @肖奕叁)

▼

West Lake has been chanted by the Chinese for more than a thousand years

Countless people know West Lake from poems

But the real West Lake was once very ordinary

The ordinary poet Li Bai visited Hangzhou several times

No word about it

It was originally a small bay of Qiantang River

The silt accumulates here to form a natural "dam"

In addition, people built seawalls around

Blocked the Qiantang River tide

It became an independent lake.

(Schematic diagram of the formation of West Lake, drawn by @Xie Tongkai & Yuan Jiaxin & Zhang Qi/Planetary Research Institute)

▼

According to the law of natural evolution

The fate of West Lake is to gradually accumulate and disappear completely.

But this little lake where fate is uncertain

It has become a matter of survival for Hangzhou people.

Water Conservancy Project

(Please slide to view, West Lake Three Pools Mirroring the Moon, photographers @黎亮&朱露翔)

▼

Hangzhou is a place where floods frequently occur.

Mountain torrents, heavy rains, and the turbulent Qiantang River

They pose a constant threat to people's lives.

Especially the saltwater invasion brought by Qiantang River

This caused Hangzhou's groundwater to become salty and bitter.

Even daily drinking water has become a problem for the people

"Hangzhou is a prefecture, and its water is salty and bitter."

Looking back at West Lake

It is constantly diluted by rain and mountain streams.

The water has gradually become sweeter

(Autumn Rain in West Lake, quoted from Su Shi, photographer @陈旻昕)

▼

For Hangzhou

The development of West Lake is the finishing touch

It can not only be used as a source of drinking water for the city

It can also store flood water, irrigate, and connect river networks.

Greatly improve the quality of life of Hangzhou residents

(Sketch of the development of West Lake. The location of the wells is for reference only. Map by @袁佳欣&谢桐凯/Planet Research Institute)

▼

From Tang to Song

Li Mi, Bai Juyi, Qian Liu, Su Shi and others

All of them have realized the long-term value of West Lake.

During their tenure in Hangzhou, they vigorously managed the West Lake.

Including bringing water from West Lake into the city and building dams

Cleaning up silt, improving water quality, etc.

The fate of West Lake was completely changed by human efforts

Making it a key link in promoting the rise of Hangzhou

(A boatman clearing water plants on West Lake, photographer @田卓然)

▼

And these people who changed the fate of West Lake

It also injects verve into West Lake with superb techniques.

The hydraulic project that made it no longer a thing to be chanted

Become a landscape that touches people's hearts

Between the verses

"I love walking along the east side of the lake, and the white sand embankment under the shade of green willows."

(Please watch in horizontal mode, Baidi Bridge in Spring, the above quote is from Bai Juyi's "Spring Tour of Qiantang Lake", photographer @方建飞)

▼

In the story

"Flowers are blooming on the roadside, you can go home slowly"

(Spring scenery of West Lake, during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, Qian Liu, the king of Wuyue, ruled the southeast and established Hangzhou as the capital. He organized troops to clean up West Lake to benefit the people, and prevented Hangzhou from falling into war through policies to protect the territory and the people. One spring when the flowers in Hangzhou were in full bloom, Qian Liu missed his concubine who had not returned home and wrote a letter to her. One sentence in the letter is quoted above and is widely sung by people. Photographers @丁俊豪&楼晋瑜&石庆盛)

▼

In the landscape

"If I were to compare the West Lake to Xi Shi, light or heavy makeup would always be suitable"

(Please watch in horizontal mode, Su Causeway, the above quote is from Su Shi's "Drinking on the Lake, First Sunny, Then Rainy", photographer @赵高翔)

▼

Looking south of the Yangtze River, there are many famous mountains and rivers.

Rich water towns are not uncommon

Hangzhou only touches the West Lake

It became the most famous city in Jiangnan.

Hundreds of years

Hangzhou, which was once unknown

It became known as the "Famous County in the Southeast" and the "Buddhist Kingdom in the Southeast" and became the world-famous " First State in the Southeast ".

People praise it

"The first state in the southeast, West Lake has been full of beauties since ancient times"

(Lingyin Temple, the above three titles come from the Tang, Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, and Song dynasties respectively. The above is quoted from Chen Dewu's "Shuilongyin·West Lake Nostalgia", picture source @Visual China)

▼

As of the 12th century AD

As Hangzhou became the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty

People from all over the world moved here

West Lake became a source of inspiration for scholars and literati

The Ten Scenic Spots of West Lake were also formed during this period.

(Please slide to view, Su Di Chun Xiao & Ping Hu Qiu Yue, photographers @肖奕叁 & 陆振云)

▼

The Southern Song Dynasty was the time when the Jin people marched southwards

The era when the Song Dynasty lost all of Central China and North China

Also in science and technology, commerce, literature and art

A world leader in all aspects

On the West Lake

People enjoy the elegance and prosperity

On the other hand, I have a complicated mentality

Call it partial peace

(Please slide to view, [Southern Song] Liu Songnian's "Four Scenes of Landscape Painting", depicting the four seasons of the gardens around West Lake, now in the collection of the Palace Museum, photographer @柳叶氘)

▼

In this extremely open and prosperous

An era of extreme resentment

West Lake becomes the object of people's complaints

Someone is disappointed here

"Beyond the mountains, there are green mountains; beyond the buildings, there are buildings. When will the singing and dancing in West Lake stop?"

(Wushan City God Pavilion was built in 2000 on the site of the Southern Song City God Temple. The above is quoted from Lin Sheng's "Inscription on Lin'an Residence", photographer @肖奕三)

▼

Some people are intoxicated

"After all, the scenery of West Lake in June is different from that in other seasons."

(Please slide to view the West Lake lotus, the above quote is from Yang Wanli's "Seeing Lin Zifang off at Dawn from Jingci Temple", picture source @Visual China & Yu Ming & Guo Rancong)

▼

Some people linger and forget to leave, "spending the whole spring buying flowers and getting drunk on lace every day"

(Please scroll to view, Flower Harbor Fish Viewing, Yu Guobao's "Wind in the Pine Trees: A Spring of Spending Money", photographer @英1984&Xu Xiaoyu)

▼

Some people are speechless

"No one said a word when I saw West Lake, but Yue Wang knew Yi An's thoughts"

(Sunrise over West Lake, quoted from Xia Chengtao's "Qu Ran Lun Ci Quatrains·Li Qingzhao", Li Qingzhao was known as Yi'an Jushi. When the Jin soldiers invaded the Central Plains, she lived in exile in the south, and her situation was miserable. She lived in Hangzhou for more than 20 years, but she did not leave a single poem about West Lake. Photographer @杨照夫)

▼

West Lake is the highlight of Hangzhou

It is precisely because it is a rare blank space

People's emotions

All can be pointed out by West Lake.

Just like hundreds of years ago

A snow fanatic saw this scene at West Lake

"The sky, clouds, mountains and water, all white"

Feeling

"Don't say your husband is crazy, there are people who are even crazier than your husband"

(Please watch in horizontal screen, snow scene of West Lake, the above quote is from Zhang Dai's "Watching Snow at the Pavilion in the Center of the Lake", photographer @Lu Yilin)

▼

West Lake and Hangzhou soar

There is fog on earth, but West Lake clears it away

Only a place like this can be called heaven

(Please watch in horizontal mode, West Lake is picturesque, photographer @肖奕叁)

▼

When the sight crosses the West Lake

You can also see a river extending from the distance to the foreground.

Bring the viewer's eyes into the deeper world

03 Wanshui Rendering

As the scroll continues to unfold

The Grand Canal has become the master of the picture

It draws out extremely dense buildings

Wrinkles on the water

Reminding viewers

The ship has sailed far

(Please watch in horizontal screen, Tangqi Ancient Town, photographer @李盛涛)

▼

The distant ship gradually became clear.

This group of unprecedented super waterways

It runs through the north and south

Haihe River, Yellow River, Huaihe River, Yangtze River, Qiantang River

Five major water systems

As early as the Sui and Tang Dynasties

It brings a strong hub advantage to Hangzhou

"The masts are lined up for twenty miles, and there are thirty thousand shops."

(A schematic diagram of the route of China's Grand Canal, quoted from Li Hua's "Inscription on the Wall of the Hangzhou Provincial Governor's Hall", drawn by @Zheng Yi/Planetary Research Institute)

▼

The Grand Canal connects cities in the north and south

It revitalized the dense rivers in Hangzhou.

Rendering a gorgeous city scene

“A place where people from all over the world gather and where all kinds of goods are sold”

(Canal River Park, the above quote is from Ouyang Xiu, photographer @肖奕三)

▼

Southern Song Dynasty

Thousands of boats race on the Grand Canal

Plus strong overseas trade

Hangzhou not only completes hundreds of tons of rice transactions every day

Imported products such as wine and "Persian dates" are also popular.

At that time, Hangzhou had

Three major “urban business districts”

More than 70 "affordable pharmacies" and hundreds of bridges

More than 3,000 commercial bathhouses, countless teahouses and pubs

And such a scene

It is just a slice of the countless prosperity brought by the canal.

(Hangzhou Hefang Street welcomes the God of Wealth on the fifth day of the first lunar month. It was the "root of the imperial city" during the Southern Song Dynasty. The above data is from "Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion", photographer @丁俊豪)

▼

Beyond the bustling city, the canal creates an atmosphere

More intense work

Especially in the Ming and Qing dynasties

As China's population rapidly expands

Hangzhou is a city with a small land area and a large population.

With the help of the Grand Canal and dense water network

Render this atmosphere to the extreme

(The Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal passes through the city, photographer @潘劲草)

▼

From the plains to the mountains

People grow mulberry, cotton and hemp.

Planting rice, bamboo and tea

Let limited land

Maximize value

(Hangzhou West Lake Longjing Shihushan Tea Garden, photographer @田卓然)

▼

From the city to the countryside

People weaving silk

Fan making, wire making, powder making

Making cigarettes, scissors and umbrellas

Making medicine, paper and pens

Can produce almost everything

(Weaving demonstration at the China National Silk Museum, photographer @熊豪)

▼

In order to make the goods run efficiently

Dense and flexible towns

Instead of huge cities

The town is crowded with merchants and has a wide variety of goods.

Some shops also specialize in delivering goods.

Start the ancient "logistics" business

(In Xixing Ancient Town, Hangzhou, there are a large number of cargo transshipment companies , photographer @周勇)

▼

All kinds of goods are shipped from towns and cities of all sizes

As the ship extends to the next screen

(Night view of Gongchen Bridge, photographer @石庆盛)

▼

Crossing bridges and streets

Through the village and through the market

It flows into Qiantang River and the Grand Canal

Then spread to the whole country

Connecting to the ancient "Taobao"

(Cargo ship on Qiantang River, photographer @肖奕三)

▼

Hangzhou Landscape

The commodity economy has penetrated every household

It has also become a natural and open

A stage accessible to everyone

Huang Gongwang by the Fuchun River

Brewing "Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains"

(Please slide to view a partial view of Huang Gongwang's Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains. There are two sections of Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains, one in the Zhejiang Museum and the other in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Image source: @wikimedia commons)

▼

Shi Naian decided to let Lu Zhishen pass away and attain enlightenment when the tide came in the Qiantang River.

"The tide is coming from the Qiantang River, and today I know who I am."

(Please watch in horizontal mode, Hangzhou Liuhe Pagoda, where Lu Zhishen passed away; Shi Naian was mainly in Hangzhou when he wrote "Water Margin", and many place names, mountains, rivers, folk customs, etc. in the book are related to Hangzhou, photographer @李斌杰)

▼

Leifeng Pagoda by the lake

Leaving behind the White Lady who pursues love

(Leifeng Pagoda, photographer @璋)

▼

Wansong Academy in the mountains

Recording the poignant "Butterfly Lovers"

(Wansong Academy, photographer @江南君)

▼

Literati and wealthy businessmen

The joys and sorrows of the common people

All can be carried by this landscape

(Xiling Seal Art Society, photographer @柳叶氘)

▼

People are born and raised here

And I am in love with this

These five hundred miles of mountains and rivers

Rendered into a five hundred miles of sentimental landscape

Draw this unparalleled Hangzhou

Half of the city is misty and rainy, and half of the city is golden and jade

Half of the city is a place of comfort, and half of the city is a place of wealth.

Half of the city is full of bright moon and fresh breeze, and half of the city is full of fame and fortune.

I love mountains and rivers, I love the mundane world, I love beauty, I love hard work

(Please watch in horizontal mode. Half of Hangzhou is a place of clear breeze and bright moon, and the other half is a place of gold and jade. Photographer: @璋力)

▼

In modern times

The Grand Canal went into decline

The Qiantang River has shallow water and lots of sand.

Unable to accommodate modern large cargo ships

This caused Hangzhou to lose its advantage as a transportation hub.

Hangzhou Plain is small

It is not a resource-rich city.

It loses its hub advantage

Industrial base, national support, etc.

They are also isolated from Hangzhou.

(Tidal trees in Qiantang River, photographer @果然聪)

▼

The tide of the times is coming

But the painting did not stop there.

Hangzhou's Landscape and Human World

Once again, a powerful force

Continue to expand this picture

This force

Have a common name

Tide rider

04The tide surges

The last appearance in the long scroll

It is the tides of the human world, some passionate, some endless, that inject momentum into this long scroll.

(Please watch in horizontal mode. On both sides of the Qiantang River, the city draws the waves of the earth. Photographer: @肖奕三)

▼

Hangzhou already has

The world-famous Qiantang River Tide

Under the influence of tidal force, the sea water

Rushing into the trumpet-shaped Hangzhou Bay

Forming periodic tides

(Qiantang River Tide, Photographer @陈中秋)

▼

The tide brings a breathtaking spectacle to Hangzhou

It also created thousands of

The Tide -rider Dancing with the Tide

"The surfer stands at the head of the waves, holding the red flag without getting it wet"

(The surfer is so handsome while surfing. The above is quoted from Pan Lang's "Jiuquanzi: Long Remembering the Tide Watching", photographer @许志伟)

▼

On the south bank of Qiantang River

Xiaoshan

"Seize land from the tide and take food from the seashore"

Not only on the banks of the Qiantang River

More than 500,000 mu of land was reclaimed

Rongsheng, Hengyi, Wanxiang, and Chuanhua were also born.

“Old and strong company”

(The "Gate of Hangzhou" in Xiaoshan, photographer @璋)

▼

On the north bank of Qiantang River

Evergreen

Known as "1.3 billion Chinese

Every person has one piece of clothing from Sijiqing"

Become China's largest clothing wholesale base

(Hangzhou Sijiqing, photographer @江南君)

▼

On the Fuchun River

Tonglu

It is said that there are 1.2 million people in Tonglu, 800,000 of whom are engaged in express delivery.

With STO, ZTO, YTO, and Yunda

Sweeping the country

(Tonglu Tongjun Tower and the new city skyline, photographer @肖奕三)

▼

After the Reform and Opening Up

Hangzhou, with its surging tide, has been the

The city with the largest number of China's top 500 private enterprises has set off a wave of private economy

With the help of the Internet

Sijiqing becomes the cornerstone of Taobao

Tonglu Express joins in establishing Cainiao Network

Hangzhou becomes the world's e-commerce capital again

Set off a wave of e-commerce

Then it broke out again

The dynamic digital economy

(Please watch in horizontal mode, Qiantang River skyline, photographer @璋)

▼

And successively hosted the G20 Hangzhou Summit

The 19th Asian Games in Hangzhou and other international events

Standing on the stage of competing for global urban competitiveness

(Please slide to watch, Hangzhou Olympic Sports Center and Qianjiang New City on both sides of Qiantang River "sun and moon shine together", photographer @风灵影像)

▼

In the tide

There is also a silent power

2002

West Lake becomes the first 5A scenic spot in China to offer free admission

It was successfully listed as a World Heritage Site in 2011.

(Please slide to view Yanggong Dike of West Lake in summer, autumn and winter, photographers @风灵影像&朱露翔&赵高翔)

▼

Afterwards

Grand Canal, Liangzhu Ancient City Site

Successfully applied for World Heritage status

Let Hangzhou have three world cultural heritage sites at the same time

(Liangzhu Ancient City Ruins Park, photographer @肖奕三)

▼

besides

Xianghu Lake

(Please watch in horizontal mode, panoramic view of Xianghu Lake, where there is the 8,000-year-old Kuahu Bridge culture, photographer @吕海彬)

▼

Xixi Wetland, etc.

Ancient landscapes

Still exists, still alive

(Xixi Wetland, photographer @Shao Yizhan)

▼

Thousand Island Lake

(Qiandao Lake, image source: Visual China)

▼

Qingshan Lake and other young landscapes have also begun to infuse the soul of this city.

(Qingshan Lake, photographer @江南君)

▼

Five hundred miles of mountains and rivers, five thousand years of human life

They coexist and are closely intertwined.

Let Hangzhou go global

It is still a city with great landscape aesthetics

Still a model of oriental aesthetics

Ink splashes on mountains and seas, and West Lake adds the finishing touch

Thousands of waters are rendering, and the tides are surging

Draw a long scroll called Hangzhou

The landscape growth volume at this moment

This world is Hangzhou

(Please watch in horizontal mode, Hangzhou City, West Lake and Qiantang River are in the same frame, photographer @肖奕三)

This article was created by

Written by: Ding Ding

Image: Grateful Heart

Design: Zhang Qi

Map: Zhengyi

Proofreading: Zhou Tianxiu & Li Chuyang & Wu Xintian

Cover Photographer: Xiao Yisan

External review experts

Hangzhou Urban Planning and Design Institute

Hua Fang, Director of the Institute of Urban Development and Historic Preservation

Vice President of Hangzhou History Society

Professor Zhong Xiangping from Zhejiang Gongshang University

Teacher at Beijing University of Civil Engineering

Chinese painting artist Zhuansun Enyang

【References】

[1] Zhou Ying, Wu Jing. Hangzhou History and Culture Research Series: Hangzhou Economic History[M]. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2015.05.

[2] Zhou Ying, Wu Jing. Cultural History of Hangzhou[M]. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2020.12.

[3] Chen Xiuying, Sun Yan, Xu Weiwei. Population migration and urban development history in the Qiantang River Basin [M]. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2009.06.

[4] Lin Zhengqiu. History of the Ancient City of Hangzhou[M]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Publishing House, September 2011.

[5] Gu Xijia, He Wangfang, Yuan Jin. History of Social Life in Hangzhou[M]. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2011.10.

[6] [France] Xie Henai, translated by Liu Dong. Daily life in China on the eve of the Mongol invasion [M]. Nanjing: Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 1995.06.

[7] Zhou Zhuwei. Zhejiang Series: The Rise of Hangzhou and Structural Changes in the Qiantang River Region in the 7th to 10th Centuries. Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 2006.04.

[8] Xie Xi. High Countryside and Low Countryside: A Study of the Historical Geography of the Jiangnan Region from the 11th to the 16th Century [M]. Beijing: Sanlian Bookstore, 2015.07.

[9] Sun Yue. Buddhist Kingdom by the West Lake[M]. Hangzhou: Hangzhou Publishing House, 2010.12.

[10] Li Xin, Zhang Xia, Lin Chunming, Deng Chengwen, Li Xulong, Feng Xudong, Xia Changfa, Huang Shuya, Zhao Xuepei. Clay mineral characteristics and significance of Holocene sediments from Core SE2 in the Qiantang River incision valley[J]. Journal of Palaeogeography, 2022, 24(02): 332-343.

[11] Tang Jianjun, Chen Xuewen, Qiu Minghu, et al. Study on the status of agricultural ecological environment in the Hangzhou-Jiaxing-Huzhou region during the Ming and Qing Dynasties [C]//Zhejiang Association for Science and Technology. Proceedings of the First Yangtze River Delta Science and Technology Forum - Ecological Environment and Sustainable Development Forum. 2004: 106-116.

[12] Zhao Gang. On towns in Chinese history[J]. Studies on Chinese Social and Economic History, 1992(02):5-18.