Leonardo da Vinci's "Mona Lisa" is very famous, but who knows who the woman in the painting is? Why did Leonardo da Vinci paint her portrait? Why does the version we see now have no eyebrows and eyelashes? Are there other versions? Written by | Zhang Yi A pleasant smile seems more divine than human, ... a smile that truly and authentically displays the essence of life. ——Giorgio Vasari (Note: This is a translation by the author from Vasari’s discussion of Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa painting in his Biography.) ” 1 The name and origin of "Mona Lisa" "Mona Lisa" (Figure 1) is a transliteration. Mona comes from the Italian word Madonna, abbreviated as Monna or Mona, and is usually placed before a woman's name. Mona Lisa actually means "Mrs. Lisa". Another name for this painting is "Gioconda", which comes from the Italian word Gioconda, which is the feminine spelling of the surname Giocondo. In Italian, gioconda also means "joy and happiness", so Gioconda can also be translated as "Happy Woman". Because of the unique smile of the woman in the painting, this name has a double meaning. "Mona Lisa" or "Gioconda" is the common name of this painting. In this article, we will use the name "Mona Lisa". Figure 1. Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, oil painting on wood panel, 1503-1517, height 77 cm, width 53 cm, now on display at the Louvre Museum | Image source: Wikipedia 2Who is Mona Lisa in the painting? According to Vasari, Leonardo da Vinci once painted a portrait of Mona Lisa, the wife of Francesco del Giocondo, which took him four years to complete but was not completed; when Vasari wrote his biography, the painting was collected by French King Francis I in the Palace of Fontainebleau. Most art historians believe that the "Mona Lisa" now displayed in the Louvre is the portrait of Giocondo's wife mentioned in Vasari's biography. But there are always people who like to challenge authority, and art history research is no exception. Some scholars point out that the painting collected in the Palace of Fontainebleau may not necessarily be the "Mona Lisa" mentioned by Vasari. These people believe that the person in the painting in the Louvre may be another Italian woman of Leonardo da Vinci's time. They may be Isabella d'Este (1474-1539); Isabella of Aragon (1470-1524); Cecilia Gallerani (1473-1536); Caterina Sforza (1463-1509); It could even be Leonardo da Vinci's assistant Salaì (1480-1524) or Leonardo da Vinci himself. Of course, these scholars who put forward different candidates have their own theories and can tell all kinds of interesting stories. In 2005, Dr. Armin Schlecter, the administrator of the Heidelberg University Library, made a discovery that ended almost all of the above speculations and debates. While sorting books, he found a copy of Cicero's Epistulae ad familiare, published in Bologna in 1477, in which there was a blank space with a note written by Agostino Matteo Vespucci (1462-1515) in October 1503. The latter compared Leonardo da Vinci to the ancient Greek painter Apelles (active in the 4th century BC) and pointed out that Leonardo da Vinci was painting a portrait of Lisa del Giocondo at the time (Figure 2). Figure 2. A page from the "Letters of Cicero" in the collection of the Heidelberg University Library, with a note from Agostino Vespucci in 1503, in which he noted that Leonardo was painting a portrait of Lisa del Giocondo. (The green line under Lisa del Giocondo in the picture was added by the author) Agostino Vespucci, who wrote this note, was not only a Florentine government official, but also an assistant to the second secretary of state, Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527), who was a friend of Leonardo da Vinci. Vespucci also wrote relevant historical documents for Leonardo da Vinci's upcoming "Battle of Anghiari" to help the painter understand the battle. In view of this, most historians and art historians believe that the Mona Lisa in the painting should be the Lisa del Giocondo mentioned by Vasari. Although Vincent Delieuvin, a museum curator at the Louvre, was skeptical about this confirmation in a TV interview at the time, on the grounds that Schreckter's discovery could not fully prove that the person depicted in the painting in the Louvre was the Lisa del Gioconda in Vespucci's notes. The woman painted by Leonardo da Vinci in "Mona Lisa" was originally named Lisa di Antonmaria Gherardini (June 15, 1479-July 15, 1542). She was a noblewoman born in Florence. The Gherardini Family to which she belonged can be traced back to the ancient Roman period and still retained the title of nobility after the unification of Italy. When she was born, her family did not have much political influence in Florence, and was far less economically prominent than the Medici, Strozzi, Rucellai and other families, although they had certain connections with these top powerful families. On March 5, 1495, she married Francesco di Bartolomeo del Giocondo (1465–1538), a wealthy civilian merchant in Florence who was engaged in the clothing and silk industry. The latter was very powerful financially. He was not only the leader of the Florentine Silk Guild, but also held a position in the Florentine government. It should be said that this was a marriage between a traditional aristocratic family and a wealthy merchant of the emerging bourgeoisie. After the marriage, her name was changed to Lisa del Giocondo. In order to let people know her aristocratic family background, she was also called Lisa di Gherardini del Giocondo. Her husband, Francesco del Giocondo, was also an art collector. It is very likely that the couple had contact with Vasari when they were alive. Although the vast majority of art historians believe that the Mona Lisa in the painting is the Florentine woman Lisa del Gioconda, following the discovery of the painting in the Heidelberg University Library in 2005, there are still a very small number of people who insist that the woman in the painting should be Isabella d'Este, Marchioness of Mantua (Figure 3), an outstanding politician and important patron of the arts during the Italian Renaissance. Perhaps they think that the legendary paintings handed down by Leonardo da Vinci must depict great figures of that era? Figure 3. Leonardo da Vinci, Portrait of Isabella d’Este, sketch, circa 1500, height 61 cm, width 46.5 cm, now in the Louvre Museum | Image source: Wikipedia According to the historical documents handed down, it should be around 1499-1500 that Leonardo da Vinci came to Mantua to escape the turmoil caused by the French army's occupation of Milan. He was entertained by the city's ruler, the Marchioness Isabella d'Este, and promised to paint her portrait. In preparation for the portrait, Leonardo da Vinci drew a sketch for the Marchioness (Figure 3), but it is very likely that Leonardo da Vinci did not complete the oil painting portrait, because we can still read two letters she personally wrote to Leonardo da Vinci on May 14 and October 31, 1504, both of which mentioned that Leonardo da Vinci promised to paint her portrait but had not yet completed it. In addition, the report written by the Mantua ambassador to Florence to the Marchioness also stated that he would try his best to urge Leonardo da Vinci to complete the portrait, but the latter also said that he could not guarantee that Leonardo da Vinci would complete the painting. Therefore, we can be sure that Leonardo da Vinci had not completed the portrait by the end of 1504. 3Why did Leonardo da Vinci paint Lisa del Gioconda? At the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century, Leonardo da Vinci's artistic reputation in Italy was at its peak, and many princes, nobles and high-ranking officials of the Vatican hoped to have him paint their portraits. But Lisa del Gioconda and her husband were obviously not at the top in terms of status and financial resources, so why did Leonardo da Vinci agree to paint their portraits? First, from the documents left in Florence, we know that Lisa and her husband lived on a street near the Santa Croce Cathedral in Florence. Their house was very close to the house of Leonardo's father. As a lawyer and notary, Leonardo's father should have provided professional services to Lisa's husband. It is very likely that because of the connection between the two families, Francesco del Giocondo was able to order a portrait of his wife from Leonardo in 1503. In addition, Leonardo da Vinci wanted to paint Mona Lisa, a noblewoman who was relatively not really powerful, perhaps because he did not want to be disturbed by the subject of his painting. For example, Titian once painted a portrait of the aforementioned Marquise Isabella d'Este, but because the latter was dissatisfied with the great painter's portrait that faithfully recorded her age, she forced Titian to repaint a portrait that made her look younger and more beautiful. If you compare it with similar works of the same period, it is easy to observe that Leonardo da Vinci's portrait of Mona Lisa does not have all the carefully painted jewelry in the typical portraits of noble women at that time. The painter completely focused the audience's attention on the woman in the painting, especially on her face. Leonardo da Vinci combined his knowledge of anatomy, optics and various artistic knowledge and experience he had gained in the past to paint the image of a beautiful woman that humans idealize. 4 How to understand Vasari's description of the Mona Lisa painting To better understand the painting Mona Lisa, we can first read Vasari's description of it in his biography of Leonardo da Vinci: "Anyone can understand from this head how far art can go in imitating nature , for Leonardo has reproduced every detail with his delicate touch. The bright, moist eyes, which can only be seen on a real person's face in real life, and the eyelashes around them with their reddish hue, cannot be expressed without the most delicate and fine brushwork. The eyebrows are painted as realistically as possible, because they show the state of hair growing on the skin - thick in some places and sparse in others according to the distribution of pores in the skin. The tip of the nose is lifelike, with a pink color, and the nostrils appear extremely delicate. The mouth is slightly open, and the red on the lips naturally transitions to the pink flesh on the cheeks, which looks so realistic that one would not think it is a picture." (Note: The author translated it according to the original text) If one only reads this passage, one might think that it is a description of a female portrait painted by a French Rococo painter in the 18th century (see Figure 4). Why is Vasari's description of Leonardo da Vinci's paintings so different from the paintings we see? A simple explanation is that the cleaning and restoration of the paintings over the past few hundred years, as well as the damage and dust caused by the years, have changed their colors and appearance to a certain extent. Figure 4. Boucher, "Madame Pompadour" (partial), oil on canvas, 1756, height 212 cm, width 164 cm, now on display in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich, Germany, image from Wikipedia. The Prado Museum in Madrid, Spain, displays a painting of the Mona Lisa from Leonardo da Vinci's studio. It was probably painted by an assistant in Leonardo da Vinci's studio at the same time as Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa. The Prado Museum recently cleaned it, and the finished painting should remind readers of what Leonardo da Vinci's paintings should have looked like (Figure 5). In order to understand the changes that the cleaning work brought to the appearance of the painting, we also show readers the photos before cleaning (Figure 5a), and everyone can compare them by themselves. Figure 5. Leonardo da Vinci's studio, "Mona Lisa", oil painting on wood, about 1503-1516, 76.3 cm high, 57 cm wide, now on display at the Prado Museum in Madrid, Spain | Image source: Wikipedia Figure 5a. The Prado version of "Mona Lisa" before cleaning | Image source: Wikipedia Comparing the Mona Lisa in the Louvre with Vasari's description of it, the first thing we notice is that the eyebrows and eyelashes of the woman in the painting have completely disappeared, which may be due to the cleaning done in the past. But the Prado version after cleaning may give us some hints (Figure 6 and Figure 6a), allowing us to imagine what the eyebrows and eyelashes of the woman in the painting originally looked like. Figure 6. Part of the Louvre version of "Mona Lisa" without eyebrows and eyelashes | Image source: Wikipedia Figure 6a. Mona Lisa's eyebrows and eyelashes, part of the Prado version of "Mona Lisa" | Image source: Wikipedia 5. A Brief Analysis of the Louvre's Mona Lisa Looking closely at the Louvre version of "Mona Lisa", we can see that the woman in the painting seems to be smiling at us, but looking again, she seems not so sure, and her expression seems to have some sarcasm and mockery. When Leonardo da Vinci painted Mona Lisa's face, he mixed two special techniques: Sfumato and Chiarosuro. The former is generally recognized as Leonardo's invention, while the latter's invention is somewhat controversial. But in any case, the chiarosuro used by Leonardo da Vinci is very characteristic of himself. The use of these two painting techniques makes the outlines of the characters in the painting look less clear. It is this slightly blurred outline plus the soft colors that form a natural transition between the organ shapes and the skin on the face of the characters in the painting, avoiding the slightly stiff feeling of the characters in the paintings of Leonardo da Vinci's predecessors and peers in the Renaissance, while leaving room for the viewer's imagination. Readers can compare "Mona Lisa" with the earlier works of Ghirlandaio and Botticelli, as well as Raphael's works of the same period (Figures 7, 8 and 9). Figure 7. Botticelli, Simoneda Vaspucci as a Fairy, tempera on wood, 1480, 81.8 cm high, 54 cm wide, now on display at the Städel Museum in Frankfurt, Germany | Image source: Wikipedia Figure 8. Domenico Ghirlandaio, "Portrait of Giovanna Tornabuoni"; tempera and oil on wood, circa 1489-1490, 75.5 cm high, 49.5 cm wide, now on display at the Collection Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum in Madrid, Spain | Image source: Wikipedia Figure 9. Raphael, "Young Woman Holding a Unicorn", oil painting, about 1505-1506, height 65 cm, width 51 cm, now on display in the Galleria Borghese in Rome | Image source: Wikipedia It is particularly noteworthy that the lips of Mona Lisa's smile are basically slightly curved upwards, but at the ends of the lips, they are slightly downwards, adding a sense of mystery, irony and even a touch of sadness to the smile of the woman in the painting (Figure 10). It should be said that the reason why Mona Lisa's smile is charming is that her expression makes the viewer feel a little unpredictable. Leonardo da Vinci has made a careful study of this movement of the lips, and we can find traces of it in his notes (Figure 10a). From some other sketches of this period, we can also see that Leonardo da Vinci has been studying the mystery that this movement of the lips brings to the face (as shown in Figure 10b). Figure 10. Lips of Mona Lisa in the Louvre version | Image source: Wikipedia Figure 10a. Leonardo da Vinci, Study of Lips (detail), sketch, circa 1508, British Royal Collection. Figure 10b. Leonardo da Vinci, Study of Mona Lisa's Head, sketch, drawn between 1505 and 1508, 20 cm high and 16.2 cm wide, in the British Royal Collection. If you have seen the painting "Mona Lisa" many times, you will notice that the woman in the painting seems to always change. Every time you see her, you will feel that she is different from the last time you saw her. Moreover, from different angles, or even from the same angle but at different times, the woman in the painting looks different. This is because when Leonardo da Vinci painted this work, he gathered all the knowledge he obtained from dissecting the human face, such as the relationship between the lips and facial muscle movements, and the light and shadow effects produced by the face under light (Figure 11 and Figure 11a). At the same time, he used extremely delicate brushstrokes to apply the translucent pigment mixed in oil layer by layer, which produced a special effect. Because the brush strokes in different layers are not in the same direction during the painting process, and the thickness of the colors is not exactly the same, coupled with the clever use of the fading method and the light and dark contrast method, the woman in the painting looks not only like a living person, but also makes people feel that she is a real person. Careful people will vaguely feel that she seems to have changed somewhere every time they see her. Figure 11. Leonardo da Vinci, Study of Facial Muscles and Arms, sketch, 1510-1511, height 28.8 cm, width 20 cm, British Royal Collection. Figure 11a. Leonardo da Vinci, Study of a Single Point Light on a Face, sketch, 1488, height 20.3 cm, width 14.3 cm, British Royal Collection. 5.1 Transparent scarf in the painting There was no photography technology in ancient times. Only a very small number of wealthy people could hire painters to paint their portraits. Even the rich and powerful could only leave behind a few portraits of themselves. Therefore, women at that time usually wore the most expensive or their favorite jewelry in the house, hoping to show their image and identity to their peers through portraits and pass them on to future generations (as shown in Figures 7, 8 and 9). When the Louvre used modern technology to study the painting recently, it was discovered that Leonardo da Vinci had painted the jewelry on the woman's head on the oil-painted base of the painting, but eventually removed all the jewelry on her body, probably intending to allow the audience to focus on the face of the person in the painting. But in order to make a natural transition between the figure and the background, he retained the delicate and transparent scarf on Mona Lisa's head, which was a very fashionable Spanish-style dress in Italy at the time. It was expensive and luxurious, and also revealed the social status and occupation of her family. From an artistic point of view, the transparent scarf creates a gradual color transition between the hair and the skin on the face, and between the hair and the scenery behind, even though we can see the edge of the scarf. Through the scarf, we can see the sheen of the skin on Mona Lisa's forehead, while the scarf darkens and gives a more obvious texture to the part outside the hair that blocks the sky and the distant scenery. Da Vinci undoubtedly demonstrated his incredible insight and imagination here. 5.2 Landscape Unlike early Renaissance or contemporary portraits that placed characters in realistic landscapes or interiors, the landscape in Mona Lisa is mostly from Leonardo da Vinci's imagination, giving it a surreal feel. The rugged and winding paths and bridges over the river not only show the changes that human activities have brought to nature, but also add vitality to the painting itself. But the bridge in the painting should be the Carraia Bridge on the Arno River in Florence (Figure 12), which dates back to at least the early 13th century. In the era when Leonardo da Vinci lived, it should be the most beautiful bridge in Florence. Since the previous bridge was washed away by a flood in 1333, the bridge Leonardo da Vinci saw should be designed by the master artist Giotto; and the one we see today was rebuilt on the original foundation in 1948 after it was bombed by the German army during World War II. Figure 12. Karaia Bridge at dusk in summer | Image source: Wikipedia If we look closely at the landscape behind the figure, we will find that the horizontal line on the left side of her face is slightly lower than the horizon on the right side of her face, while the shoulders of the woman in the painting remain horizontal. Leonardo da Vinci used a visual deception here, because when we look at the painting, we feel that Mona Lisa on the left side of the painting is slightly taller than her on the right side of the painting, so we will try to correct this through visual adjustment of our brain. Therefore, when people look at different parts of the painting, the static figure in the painting will seem to give people an illusion of constant movement. Figure 13. Schematic diagram of the landscape horizon on both sides behind Mona Lisa. 6 Influence of Neoplatonic Philosophy Before the appearance of "Mona Lisa", the expressions of the characters in almost all portraits were quite serious (see Figures 7 and 8). Because it was a portrait, the painters at that time usually had to create it based on real people. Since it was difficult for people to keep smiling all the time, it was difficult for painters to draw smiling people in portraits. However, the following passage in Vasari's "Biography" reveals to us the techniques used by Leonardo da Vinci when he painted "Mona Lisa". "Leonardo added the following techniques to the already beautiful Mona Lisa: he invited musicians to play or sing for her, and clowns to perform, so as to keep her in a state of happiness and dispel her inner sadness, which often inadvertently entered the portrait when he painted it. In Leonardo's portrait, the pleasant smile seems more divine than human, but it is such a magical creation, showing the smile from the source of life as it is." (Note: My own translation) Leonardo da Vinci, who grew up in Florence under the rule of Lorenzo the Magnificent, was obviously deeply influenced by Neoplatonic philosophy, but he took it a step further. In De Inventione, Cicero tells the story of the ancient painter Zeuxis (who lived in the 5th century BC) creating Helen of Troy. When Zeuxis painted the picture, he asked the people of Crotone to provide him with many beautiful girls as models, because he believed that no matter how beautiful a beautiful woman's body was, nature itself could not make all parts of her body grow absolutely perfect. As a painter, it was impossible for him to find all the elements required for the ultimate beauty from any beautiful woman. Leonardo da Vinci applied the same concept when he created Mona Lisa, but because it was a portrait, the author should not draw beautiful elements from other models' faces and incorporate them into the painting, so Leonardo da Vinci chose to create an ideal environment for the model as much as possible, giving her the opportunity to capture the most beautiful and attractive parts of the subject at different moments, and finally incorporate them into the painting. When Leonardo da Vinci left Florence for Milan in 1506, the Mona Lisa was not finished. Perhaps for this reason, Francesco del Giocondo did not accept the portrait. Leonardo da Vinci kept it with him, revised it from time to time and continued to paint it, and finally completed it after arriving in France in 1517. More importantly, after leaving Florence, the painter should no longer be depicting Lisa del Giocondo, but a more perfect representation of human beings in his mind. Therefore, it is natural to incorporate the understanding and feelings of the painter who has experienced many vicissitudes and tasted the warmth and coldness of the world about the nature of human beings, which undoubtedly makes this painting appear more profound. It is precisely because of the deep influence of Neoplatonism and the effort to show the most beautiful image of Mona Lisa in the painting that this work has become a perfect combination of depicting the solemn and sacred beauty of human women and the image of real women in the secular society of Florence. 7. Raphael’s Quick Response to the Mona Lisa When Leonardo da Vinci was painting the portrait of Mona Lisa, the young Raphael was studying in Florence. This painter, who was extremely sensitive to art and good at learning, immediately made a record in the form of a sketch (Figure 14). The "Young Woman Holding a Unicorn" and "Portrait of Magdalena Doni" he painted around 1506 were both influenced by the "Mona Lisa" and were painted immediately (Figures 9 and 15). Figure 14. Raphael, Portrait of a Woman, Sketch, 1505-1506, height 22 cm, width 15.8 cm, now collected in the Louvre Museum in Paris | Image source: Wikipedia Figure 15. Raphael, "Portrait of Maddalena Doni", oil painting, circa 1506, 65 cm high, 45.8 cm wide, now on display in the Uffizi Museum in Florence | Image source: Wikipedia Looking closely at Raphael's sketch (Figure 14), we will notice that there are pillars on both sides of the woman in the painting. If we look more closely at the Louvre version of the Mona Lisa, we will notice that there are traces of the bottom of the pillars on both sides of the woman's arms, but there are no pillars; while in the Mona Lisa in the Prado Museum, we can clearly see the pillars on both sides of the painting (Figure 5). This makes us wonder: Was the Louvre version of the Mona Lisa cut later? Is the painting we see today the entire painting? 8 Simple Conclusion Leonardo da Vinci's "Mona Lisa" is an important painting in the history of Renaissance art. It not only embodies the achievements of many predecessors and peers, but also shows many new technologies invented by Leonardo da Vinci. The influence of this portrait on Western portraiture lasted for a long time until the end of the 19th century. However, with the passage of time and various advertisements, people's habit of winning the best is also reflected in the introduction and summary of this painting. Many overly simple introductions to Renaissance art and "Mona Lisa" put the technical inventions of predecessors on Leonardo da Vinci. What we most often read or hear is that no matter what angle we look at the painting from, Mona Lisa's eyes will look at the reader. This is indeed true, but it is not Leonardo da Vinci's invention. We can see the same phenomenon in some portraits before Mona Lisa appeared. Here we introduce two portraits painted by painters from different regions of Italy (Figures 16 and 17). Figure 16. Perugino, "Portrait of Francesco delle Opere", oil on wood, 1494, 52 cm high, 44 cm wide, now on display in the Uffizi Museum | Image source: Wikipedia Figure 17. Francesco Francia, "Portrait of Bartolomeo Bianchini", oil on wood, 1493-1495, height 56.6 cm, width 40.6 cm, now on display at the National Gallery in London | Image source: Wikipedia Pietro Perugino (c. 1448–1523) from Umbria was a great painter who was as famous as Leonardo, and Francesco Francia (1450-1517) was a Bolognese painter. If you have the opportunity to stand in front of the two portraits above, you will notice that no matter where you stand in front of the painting, the eyes of the characters in the painting will always look at you. It is also worth noting that readers can easily see the difference between the realistic landscapes in these two portraits and the dreamlike surreal landscapes of the Mona Lisa. Finally, I would like to point out that in the hundreds of years after the Mona Lisa was completed, it was not as famous among the general public as it is today. Since the early 16th century, it has been collected in the Palace of Fontainebleau in France. Except for a very small number of kings, nobles and elites, few people have seen it. It was not until the early 19th century that the world could truly appreciate and gradually understand the Mona Lisa after it was placed in the Louvre Museum. The more important reason why it is so famous today has a complex relationship with international geopolitics, Italian domestic politics and changes in people's artistic tastes. About the Author Zhang Yi is an art historian, consultant to the Clock and Ancient Musical Instruments Department of the Hermitage Museum in Russia, consultant to the French Pendulum Clock Gallery, consultant to the Guangdong Clock Collection Research Professional Committee, and also a mathematician and logician. Produced by: Science Popularization China Special Tips 1. Go to the "Featured Column" at the bottom of the menu of the "Fanpu" WeChat public account to read a series of popular science articles on different topics. 2. Fanpu has opened the function of searching articles by month. Follow the official account and reply with the four-digit year + month, such as "1903", to get the article index of March 2019, and so on. Copyright statement: Personal forwarding is welcome. Any form of media or organization is not allowed to reprint or excerpt without authorization. For reprint authorization, please contact the backstage of the "Fanpu" WeChat public account. |
<<: Antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs, what is the difference? Many people take them wrongly
>>: Can plant roots also grow upward? Scientists explain new mechanism of plant gravity perception
Resource introduction of the fourth phase of the ...
In recent decades, scientists have come to unders...
Does WeChat Mini Program belong to the front end?...
WHO warns that there may never be a specific cure...
Do you also feel that this summer seems to be get...
On August 20, after nearly three months, the firs...
According to iResearch mUserTracker data, in 2016...
Author: Diao Wenhui You can’t remember what you j...
As of 2018, there are more than 20,000 apps on th...
1. Product positioning Jianshu is a product that ...
Suppose for some reason, you need to recall your ...
While many domestic automakers are determined to ...
The largest traffic is in the Internet industry, ...
We often encounter such clients. When making thei...
How did a newbie who had just arrived complete mo...