How was bronze ware “forged”?

As the saying goes, beauties have their own opinions. In the eyes of archaeologists, bronze artifacts are historical evidence and cultural relics; in the eyes of aestheticians, they are the embodiment of art and the realism of thought; and in the eyes of material researchers, their material properties and manufacturing processes can be analyzed in detail.

Natural copper is a purple-red solid with a soft texture and even lower hardness than stone tools, so its application range is extremely limited. Until people discovered that it would melt and flow at higher temperatures, and would form a certain shape after condensation, and that if tin, lead and other elements were added to copper, the hardness of the finished product would be even higher, thus a new alloy, bronze, was born.

Bronze is an alloy of red copper and other chemical elements (tin, nickel, lead, phosphorus, etc.). The newly cast bronze ware is golden and shining, and the ancients called it gold or lucky gold . Because it has been buried underground for a long time, the copper reacts chemically with the water and minerals in the soil, forming a layer of green copper rust on the surface, hence the name bronze.

Bronze is a great invention in human history and the earliest alloy in the history of metallurgy and casting in the world. Bronze ware refers to utensils and utensils made from bronze as the basic raw material. Bronze ware buried deep underground for thousands of years has traveled through time and space and reappeared before the eyes of the world. We regard it as a treasure, marvel at its mystery and strangeness, or praise its magnificence and brilliance.

To date, a huge number of bronze artifacts have been unearthed, with 1,403,451 pieces (sets) currently registered. Because of the profound history they carry, we call them "national treasures."

History is the predecessor of reality, and reality is the continuation of history. Bronze ware was born at the beginning of civilization, condensing thousands of years of cultural accumulation. The "Bronze Age" refers to the period when bronze utensils were used extensively. From the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties to the Qin and Han Dynasties, the Bronze Age spanned about two thousand years and witnessed the development, maturity and even prosperity of bronze ware. Because bronze ware reveals the casting technology, cultural level and historical origins of the pre-Qin period with its unique shape, exquisite decoration and elegant inscriptions, it is called "a living history book" by historians. China's ancient civilization is long and profound, and bronze ware is its epitome and reproduction.

The so-called “ hiding ritual in vessels ” refers to the fact that during the Shang and Zhou dynasties, according to the requirements of ritual, some bronze vessels used for sacrifices and banquets had the functions of establishing the identity and status of the owner, showing the relationship of hierarchy, expressing piety and awe, and symbolizing the power and status of the user. Therefore, bronze vessels have special ritual and cultural significance[1].

In other words, these bronze utensils, called ritual vessels, are essentially the materialization or embodiment of ritual. They are forcibly endowed with the sacred meaning of "ritual" according to people's own wishes, and possess a mysterious, majestic supreme power, which in turn restricts and dominates people's attitude towards them. Therefore, these ritual vessels have become an institutional social and cultural symbol, which embodies people's own ideals, morals, psychological tendencies and the order of the real world of life.

From the perspective of plastic arts, bronze ware reflects the ritual system behind it. The most eye-catching bronze ritual vessels are those displayed in ancestral temples and palaces, and are used in various sacrifices, banquets and ceremonial occasions.

The ancients believed that sacrifice and war were the most important things for the country, so-called "the most important things for the country are sacrifice and war". The most important part of ritual vessels is the utensils related to sacrifice. At present, the most important bronze vessels are also the utensils used in ancestral temples. According to their application functions, ritual vessels include wine vessels, cooking utensils, water vessels, musical instruments, jade vessels, etc.

Wine vessels are divided into wine-holding vessels and drinking vessels according to their uses. Wine-holding vessels include zun, hu, dou, gong, hu, jian, he, and you, while drinking vessels include gu, zun, jiao, jue, cup, and zhou. Cooking utensils usually include ding, zu, li, gui, xu, fu, dun, pu, yu, basin, mo, bi, and shao; water vessels include pans and yi, etc.; musical instruments include bells, drums, bells, bi, cymbals, and gongs.

1. Ritual vessel - Ding

The tripod has three legs and two handles, and is a precious vessel for the five flavors. As the need for development increased, the tripod also evolved into a four-legged vessel.

Ding, as an important bronze ritual vessel, symbolizes unity, unification and authority, represents peace, development and prosperity, and is the core of the entire bronze ritual vessel group. It is not only a ritual vessel of status and rank, but also used to represent royal power: "The emperor has nine Dings, the princes have seven, the officials have five, and the Yuanshi have three", used for sacrifices and burials; it is also a practical vessel for stewing or holding food in ancient times (Figure 1).

The Records of the Grand Historian, Fengshan, records that "Huangdi mined copper from Shoushan (the head of the Qinling Mountains) and cast a tripod at the foot of Jingshan. When the tripod was completed, a dragon with its beard hanging down came down to greet Huangdi. Huangdi rode on it, and more than seventy ministers and concubines followed him. The dragon then ascended." Huangdi's surname was Gongsun and his given name was Xuanyuan. In ancient times, Huangdi cast three tripods (the Heaven Tripod, the Earth Tripod and the Human Tripod) to make medicine to save people from plague, and then rode a dragon back to heaven.[3]

Figure 1 Tripods and their corresponding status: (a) “Zilong” bronze tripod [2]; (b) Houmuwu tripod [2]; (c) status [3]

2. Wine vessel - He Zun

Baoji Bronze Museum is the only comprehensive museum in China named after bronze ware, so Baoji is known as the "hometown of bronze ware". The He Zun, the treasure of the museum, is a bronze wine vessel from the early Western Zhou Dynasty. It was made for the noble "He" in the fifth year of King Cheng of Zhou. It is the first bronze ware with a date in the early Western Zhou Dynasty (Figure 2).

The He Zun is 38.8 cm tall, 28.8 cm in diameter, and weighs 14.6 kg. The shape of the vessel is like the Chinese character "亚", with a long neck, a slightly bulging belly, and a high ring foot. The sides of the vessel are decorated with four hollow ridges, which divide the round vessel into four parts from top to bottom. The artistic style of the He Zun continues the style of the taotie patterns on Shang Dynasty bronze vessels, and the whole body exudes a kind of "ferocious beauty". The decoration of the whole vessel is mainly thunder patterns, and some parts use the three-layer flower decoration method, which looks gorgeous and magnificent. The upper and lower parts can be divided into three parts, which are stretched and relaxed in moderation and divided by concave strips. The upper part is stretched, with slender animal-shaped banana leaf patterns arranged; the middle part is distributed with animal face patterns that are higher than the surface of the vessel and have horns; the lower part is a ring foot platform, also decorated with shallow relief animal face patterns. Looking down from above, you can see that the four protruding ridges divide the Zun into four symmetrical parts. [4] There is an inscription of 122 characters in 12 lines on the bottom of the He Zun, which records the important historical fact that the Zhou people moved their capital to Luoyi (Chengzhou) in the early Western Zhou Dynasty (the fifth year of King Cheng of Zhou, that is, 1038 BC). The overall content of the inscription can be verified by the records in "Shangshu" and "Shiji" and other documents.

According to the inscription, He's father had assisted King Wen and King Wu. King Cheng of Zhou admonished the nobles and talked about King Wu's destruction of the Shang Dynasty and the successive construction of Luoyi by King Wu and King Cheng. He also held a "Feng (Feng) Ji" sacrifice for King Wu and asked He to be like his father, work hard for heaven, convey heaven's will, and be respectful and careful in sacrifice. He was rewarded, so he made a vessel to commemorate it. The inscription "Ze Zi Zhongguo" (roughly meaning "I want to live in the central area of ​​the world") is the earliest written record of the word "China". This reflects the Zhou people's understanding of the geographical space at that time. Luoyi was flat on all sides and had rivers flowing in, which was convenient for communication. Going north, they could take over the old Shang forces on the east and west foothills of the Taihang Mountains. Going south, they could reach the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River through the Qinling Mountains and the Han River to obtain copper resources. The Luoyang Basin was surrounded by mountains and could be retreated to guard the pass. The Zhou people rose in Xiqi. The Zhou Dynasty was located to the west of Luoyi and was ultimately isolated. Building Luoyi would allow them to control the newly conquered land.[5]

The key point of the inscription on the He Zun is actually King Cheng of Zhou's warning to his descendants about the importance of Chengzhou, the "China", to the dynasty's rule. This concept of "the center of the world" and "China" has a profound influence on later generations.

Bronze inscriptions are precious history cast in bronze. In addition to confirming historical records or making up for the deficiencies of historical records, they also represent real and immortal historical facts. The He Zun is now in the collection of the Baoji Bronze Museum. Because of the important historical facts recorded in the inscription, it has become a national first-class cultural relic and one of the first cultural relics prohibited from being exhibited abroad by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage.

Figure 2 He Zun[4] and its inscription[6]

The design of the torch stand for the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics, the first Winter Olympics in China’s history, was inspired by the He Zun[2]. It also showcases the historical origins of the beauty of Chinese culture and integrates the beauty of Chinese classical culture into modern art, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 The idea of ​​the fire platform was inspired by the He Zun from the Western Zhou Dynasty[7]

3. Food utensil - Hu Gui

Hu Gui [guǐ] - the king of gui, tall and majestic, also known as Wang Gui. The whole body is 59 cm high, 43 cm in diameter, 23 cm deep, and weighs 60 kg. It is the largest surviving bronze gui from the Shang and Zhou dynasties, and is truly the king of gui, as shown in Figure 4.

The shape of the vessel is a square base, a round belly, a high ring foot, and two ears in the shape of an elephant head. The base of the vessel is decorated with vertical stripes of corrugated patterns, the upper part of the belly and the ring foot are decorated with a circle of hook cloud patterns, and the middle part of the belly is decorated with vertical stripes of corrugated patterns. The round body of the gui is connected to the square base. The overall shape is round on the top and square on the bottom, reflecting the ancient people's idea of ​​"the sky is round and the earth is square". At the same time, there is a square seat under the gui body, which strengthens the stability of the vessel. The top is like a stone drum, the bottom is like a platform, and the whole body is covered with vertical edges, like the stripes on a tiger skin. The two ears are arrogant, showing generosity in simplicity and ferocity in mystery. The shape of the vessel is majestic and heavy, simple and elegant.

Gui is a vessel used by ancient people to hold cooked food. It is also a ritual vessel and one of the iconic bronze utensils of my country's Bronze Age. According to Zhou Li, bronze gui was usually used in conjunction with ding during sacrifices and banquets, such as nine ding and eight gui for the emperor, seven ding and six gui for the princes, five ding and four gui for the officials, and three ding and two gui for the scholars. There is an inscription of 12 lines and 124 characters on the bottom of the Hu Gui. It is a sacrificial text written by the tenth king of the Western Zhou Dynasty, King Li of Zhou, Ji Hu, to worship his ancestors and pray for blessings from the gods. It records the congratulatory words of King Li of Zhou in worshiping his ancestors. At the same time, the inscription also clearly states that the casting time was the twelfth year of King Li of Zhou. It provides valuable material evidence and information for the current research on the rituals and sacrificial system of the Western Zhou Dynasty, as well as the manufacturing process, materials, decoration, and text of Shang and Zhou bronzes, and has extremely important art and archaeological value.

Figure 4 Hu Gui[4]

4. Water vessel - Zhen Yi

The bronze 朕匜[yí] belongs to the category of water vessels. It is a wash basin from the middle period of the Western Zhou Dynasty, used by the nobles at that time. It is 20.5 cm high, 12 cm deep, 17.5 cm wide, 31.5 cm long, and weighs 3.85 kg. It is oval in shape, with four legs, a spout for pouring water in the front, a handle with an animal head at the back, a flat lid, and a circle of 鍋曲纹 (Qiqiqu pattern) around the rim, Figure 5.

The overall shape of the vessel is like a sheep, with a tiger head at the front end of the lid, a pipa-shaped lid, and four animal hooves, giving it a fierce and majestic look, which is rare in bronze Yi. The bottom and lid of the vessel are cast with a total of 157 characters. The vessel inscription and the lid inscription are read together. It is the earliest and most complete litigation judgment in China. It not only records the earliest case of a citizen suing an official in history, but also records the first bribery of a judge, covering a wealth of legal connotations. Because the Zhen Yi has very important academic value for studying the legal policies and criminal punishment system of the Western Zhou Dynasty, it is known as the "Bronze Code".

Figure 5: Zhen Yi [4]

5. Musical instrument: bell

Musical instruments entered a period of great development in the Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou people incorporated music, dance, and poetry into the system of regulating social hierarchy, forming the "ritual and music system" of the Zhou Dynasty. Bronze instruments, as the most important instruments, were played on important occasions and together with stone instruments, they formed the "sound of gold and stone", including bells (Figures 6-8), bi [bó], cymbals [náo], etc. The zuo [zuò] bell is composed of 8 bells of different sizes, and zuo is the name of the owner of the chime bells.

During sacrifices or banquets, meat was placed in the tripod and the huge chime bells were struck rhythmically, which was called "zhongming dingshi". In the scene of "zhongming dingshi" on the pot with the pattern of feasting, fishing, hunting and attacking war, there are chime bells and chime stones, and a drum standing beside them. Three people are striking the bells, one person is striking the chime stone, one person is striking the drum and Dingning, and another person is holding a horn-shaped wind instrument and playing it. There are two round tripods on the right, and two people are engaged in cooking work, as shown in Figure 9. However, a strict ritual and music system can only be implemented under the strong rule of the royal family [2].

Figure 6 Western Zhou Shicheng Bell[2]

Figure 7 Oak bell[2]

Figure 8 Zenghouyi chime bells[2]

Fig. 9: A scene of feasting, fishing, hunting and fighting on a pot with bells and tripods[2]

The Zenghouyi chime bells are composed of 65 bronze bells and 8 playing instruments. The overall width is 748 mm and the height is 265 mm. The chime bells are the largest in size and have the widest range of sound. They can play five octaves of the seven-tone scale. 2,400 years ago, music reached such a high level that it can be regarded as a treasure in the history of musical instruments. The fact that a local lord used bronze instruments of such specifications shows his presumptuousness. In addition, the needs of local lords and nobles prompted the continuous improvement and upgrading of bronze casting technology[2].

6. Furnace: Copper incense burner

Copper incense burners are bronze objects used to burn charcoal for heating or incense indoors in ancient times. Some copper incense burners are also equipped with copper shovels to shovel charcoal or add spices. Incense burners existed in the Warring States Period, and herbs were placed in them and ignited directly. After Zhang Qian of the Western Han Dynasty went on a diplomatic mission to the Western Regions, resin spices such as borneol and frankincense were introduced into my country. Spices were smoked on charcoal fire, and smoke was produced slowly to drive away mosquitoes, eliminate fatigue, and fumigate clothes. The shapes of copper incense burners are different, which are full of Chinese cultural aesthetics and combine practicality and ornamental value.

The phoenix-holding-ring copper incense burner (Figure 10) is 35.5 cm high and weighs 4 kg. It is hollowed out throughout and consists of three parts: a bucket-shaped base, a hollow polygonal square column, and a spherical body with a phoenix holding a ring. The bucket-shaped base is a bucket-shaped base with its mouth facing downward. The decoration on the bucket-shaped base is a hollow high relief pattern cast at one time. The decoration on the four facades is the same. The composition can be divided into two layers, upper and lower. There are three tiger patterns on each side. The upper layer has a standing tiger, and on both sides of the tiger pattern there is a small person holding a shield and looking down; the lower layer has two tigers standing upside down, and in the middle of the tiger pattern is a small person holding a shield and looking forward. The three small people are short and have clear faces. The decoration on the four slopes connected to the facade is also the same, and most of them are consistent with the decoration on the facade. The body of the copper incense burner is spherical, with a phoenix standing on the top with its wings spread out, ready to fly. The phoenix has a high crown and a long neck, with protruding eyes and a ring in its mouth, as if flying. The phoenix and the furnace body are cast as one through a hollow column.

The furnace body is divided into two layers, the inner and outer layers, with four animal heads holding rings facing each other on the abdomen; the inner layer of the furnace body is an elliptical furnace wall, and there is a round hole with a diameter of 0.7 cm in the center of the bottom that connects to the furnace cavity. The entire copper incense burner is ingeniously designed, exquisitely crafted, beautifully shaped, uniquely styled, and decorated with gorgeous patterns. It is a classic bronze ware of the Warring States Period[8].

Figure 10: Copper incense burner with a phoenix holding a ring[8]

The Dongyi people (in Linyi, Shandong today) worshipped the phoenix and used it as their totem[9]. The Five-Phoenix Bronze Incense Burner from the Western Han Dynasty (Figure 11), a representative of Dongyi culture, is 20 cm tall and 21.5 cm in diameter. The copper incense burner consists of a cover, a body, and a tray. The cover and body are connected by bolts and can be moved freely.

The body of the incense burner is in the shape of a phoenix. Its back and wings are the incense burner lids, which are perforated with holes and bolts under the wings. The two lids can be opened and closed freely. Its two feet stand on the plate and are connected to the plate. The phoenix's long tail is spread out, and its body is decorated with light and fine feathers. There are four chicks on the back and wings of the phoenix, and there is also a chick clinging to its chest, and it stretches its neck to look for food. The five phoenixes on this incense burner symbolize good luck and peace.

Figure 11 Wufeng bronze incense burner [10]: (a) side view; (b) rear view

7. Accessories: Large Bronze Mask

The Sanxingdui bronze mask (Figure 12), which debuted at the 2022 Spring Festival Gala, was a pleasant surprise to the world. The bronze mask is 131 cm wide, 71 cm high, 66 cm deep, and weighs 65.5 kg. It is the largest and best-preserved bronze mask unearthed from the Sanxingdui site. It has a wide chin and forehead, sharp edges and corners, smooth lines on the eyebrows, eyes, lips, etc., all protruding from the face, and thick and long eyebrows are raised. There are square holes on both sides of the mask and in the middle of the forehead, which may be used for fixing. The bronze mask is a typical artifact of the Sanxingdui culture, with a history of more than 3,000 years. It reflects the ancient Shu ancestors' understanding and thinking of the natural world and the world of humans and gods [11].

The shocking bronze mask not only allows people to appreciate the splendor of bronze civilization, but also to marvel at the profoundness of Chinese civilization. At the same time, it also further increases the public's interest in recognizing and understanding archaeology, and drawing spiritual nourishment from archaeology.

Figure 12 Large bronze mask[11]: (a) front view; (b) side view

8. Crafts

The "Horse Stepping on Flying Swallow", also known as Ma Chao Longque and Bronze Galloping Horse, was unearthed in the Han Tomb of Leitai, Wuwei in October 1969. It is a bronze artifact of the Eastern Han Dynasty (Figure 13). The bronze galloping horse is 34.5 cm high, 45 cm long, 13 cm wide, and weighs 7.15 kg. The horse raises its head and neighs, with a strong trunk and slender limbs, and its legs and hooves are light and agile. One foot is stepping on a swallow and three feet are in the air. It is agile and handsome, galloping forward with a unique style.

"Horse Stepping on Flying Swallow" has been designated as a national treasure and has been exhibited in 14 countries and regions including France, Japan, Britain, Romania, Austria, Yugoslavia, Sweden, Mexico, Canada, the Netherlands, Belgium and the United States, causing a great sensation and high praise.

Figure 13 Bronze galloping horse[12]

Along with the bronze galloping horses, 98 other bronze sculptures of different shapes were unearthed. Together, they form a bronze chariot and horse guard team (Figure 14), including 39 bronze horses, 1 bronze ox, 1 axe cart, 4 chariots, 3 sedan chair carts, 2 small carts, 3 large carts, 1 ox cart, 17 warrior servants holding spears and 28 slaves. The main cart is 36 cm long, the horse is 40 cm tall, and the slaves are 19.5 to 24 cm tall. This is the largest number of bronze chariot and horse guard team from the Eastern Han Dynasty ever discovered. The bronze horses are beautifully shaped and varied in form. There are strong and resolute horses riding horses, fat and sturdy carriage horses, and galloping horses. Some are marching with their heads held high, some are jumping up, and some are driving the chariots and driving the shafts. The bronze chariot and horse guard team vividly depicts the spectacular scene of "chariots rumbling and horses neighing" [12].

Figure 14 Bronze chariot and horse ceremonial figurines [12]: (a) front view; (b) side view

9. Weapons

As the lofty ritual system was broken, bronze ware gradually came down from the altar and fell into the mortal world, and its functions became more and more practical. As the various vassal states continued to fight, bronze resources were invested heavily in weapons and equipment, and were made into swords, spears, halberds, and arrows [2] (Figure 15).

The bronze swords of Wu and Yue are famous all over the world, and the swordsmiths Gan Jiang and Mo Ye have become legends. The arrowheads of the bows and arrows are forged with bronze, and the arrow bodies are made of iron (Figure 16). The ancient weapons from thousands of years ago, although lying quietly in the photos, the metal traces left on the soil are the historical colors left by these armor-piercing weapons with copper heads and iron rods. The coldness of the metal reveals the harshness of war. I hope we will always live in a world where swords are forged into plowshares, using the benefits of metal and avoiding its harm.

Figure 15 Bronze weapons: (a) Sword of Gou Jian, King of Yue; (b) Spear of Fu Chai, King of Wu; (c) Bronze dagger with dragon pattern; (d) Arrowhead [2]

Figure 16: Diagram of the bow and arrow structure[3]

10. Bronze ware preparation technology

The casting and use of bronze ware is one of the important signs of human civilization. There are two main methods of casting bronze ware: block casting (block casting method) and lost wax casting (lost wax method) [2].

10.1 Casting method

The Chinese used the clay mold block method. The mold casting process has four steps: ① mold assembly, ② casting, ③ cooling and mold removal, and ④ polishing, as shown in Figures 17-18. Taking the casting of bronze jug as an example, the principle is to first use yellow mud to make a model of the object, that is, the "mold". The surface of the mold is covered with mud, and after solidification, it is peeled off in sections to form a mold (also called an outer mold). Then, the inner cavity of the mold is filled with mud to form a core (also called an inner mold, or the mold can be scraped off to a certain thickness to form a core).

The exquisite patterns on bronze ware are carved on the inner side of the outer mold. When the inner and outer molds are combined, a cavity is formed between them. Then the smelted copper liquid is poured into the cavity from the previously reserved pouring hole. After cooling and drying, the outer and inner molds are broken and trimmed and polished. Then a fine bronze ware is cast.[2] Because a mold can only cast one object, the word "exactly the same" remains in our culture, and it is also because of the perfect fit between the inner and outer molds. We call the role models in the world worth learning from models. The method of making extremely large and complex bronze ware is to cast them separately and join them together. For example, a large bronze mask is cast by casting the face, back of the cheeks, eyes, ears and other parts separately, and then combined into one.

Figure 17 (a) Block mold making; (b) Block mold making; (c) Mold making [2]

Figure 18 Schematic diagram of the mold casting process: (a) mold assembly; (b) casting; (c) cooling and mold removal; (d) grinding [2]

10.2 Lost wax method

The process of lost wax casting is as follows: wrapping the clay embryo, pouring fine mud, covering with thick mud; melting wax in the kiln; forming a cavity (Figure 19). First, select easily fusible materials (such as beeswax, animal oil, etc.) to make wax blocks, and then carve the wax blocks into the objects to be cast, that is, wax models. After that, pour fine mud on the surface of the wax model, and then cover the outer surface with thick mud. After drying in the shade, bake to melt the wax model and form a cavity, which is lost wax. Finally, inject copper liquid into the cavity, cool and polish to obtain bronze ware (Figure 20). The invention of the lost wax casting method allows bronze ware to be cast in almost any style, including those extremely complicated masterpieces that amaze modern people.

Figure 19 Schematic diagram of lost wax method: (a) Wrapping with mud and pouring fine mud; (b) Wrapping with mud and covering with thick mud; (c) Melting wax in kiln; (d) Forming cavity [2]

Figure 20 Schematic diagram of lost wax casting: (a) pouring molten copper; (b) cooling the casting; (c) breaking the outer mold to obtain the copper piece; (d) cutting the gate and grinding [2]

10.3 Fusion of mold casting and lost wax method

Many complex bronze products with exquisite shapes combine these two casting methods, indicating that the bronze manufacturing technology in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period was very mature, laying an important foundation for the development of casting technology. For example, the cloud-patterned bronze ban with 24 mythical beasts and the Zenghou Yi Zun plate composed of 72 parts, the hollowed-out part uses the lost wax method, while the body part uses the mold casting method. The cloud-patterned bronze ban, on which wine vessels are placed, has the connotation of "ban" reminding people to drink moderately or abstain from alcohol, as shown in Figures 21 and 22.

Figure 21 Bronze ban with cloud pattern[2]

Figure 22 Zenghouyi Zunpan[2]

11. Conclusion

Turning over the scroll of history, the remaining ancient books have left us with only an imagination of the Bronze Age, while the bronze artifacts that have been sleeping for thousands of years have confirmed the glory of that period, profoundly interpreted the bronze civilization, and also gathered the admirable wisdom of our ancestors. People are both the annotators and interpreters of history. Bronze artifacts carry the source of Chinese culture, embody the flow of integration and intersection of various ethnic groups, and engrave the historical lesson of "Why China".

References

[1] Fu Xiaoping. Hiding etiquette in utensils: A study of the etiquette and educational function of Chinese tableware. Journal of Southwest University for Nationalities (Humanities and Social Sciences). 2009, 30(9): 224
[2] Planet Research Institute. How shocking was China’s Bronze Age? Tencent (2021-10-11) [2022-03-08].
[3] "Travel with Books" Program Team. Spiritual Land: Huangdi Casting the Tripod. CCTV.com (2021‒07‒19)[2022‒03‒08]
[4] Baoji Bronze Museum. Bronze. Baoji Bronze Museum [2022‒03‒08].
[5] Bai Ke. The amazing discovery of the bronze ware town of “China”. Encyclopedia Knowledge. 2021(22): 34
[6] Ma Chengyuan. [Lecture Room] Shanghai Museum expert Ma Chengyuan discovered the inscription on the bottom of the He Zun. CCTV.com (2021‒11‒12)[2022‒03‒08].
[7] Yang Lina. The He Zun becomes the torch stand for the Winter Olympics, carrying heaven and earth and displaying the beauty of “China”. Cultural Relics Shaanxi (2022‒01‒26)[2022‒03‒08].
[8] Panshi. Pre-Qin Dynasty incense burner with phoenix and ring. Kowloon Agarwood Museum (2019‒04‒20) [2022‒03‒08].
[9] Li Mi. The Mandate of Heaven: Dongyi Feng Culture in the Book of Songs. Dongyi Culture Research (2021‒10‒21) [2022‒03‒08].
[10] Henan Museum. Western Han Dynasty Five Phoenix Bronze Incense Burner. Archaeology of the State (2021‒05‒31) [2022‒03‒08].
[11] Tong Fang, Li Yongxi. The bronze mask was criticized! Xinhua News Agency (2022‒02‒01) [2022‒03‒08].
[12] "Travel with Books" program team. Exploring the Hexi Corridor: Horse Stepping on Flying Swallow. CCTV.com. (2022-02-01) [2022-03-08].
About the Author:

Yu Dongmei, female, PhD, special guest writer for Metal World, works at the Second Affiliated Hospital of Air Force Medical University (Tangdu Hospital), engaged in research on metal materials and coating preparation. E-mail: [email protected]

Guo Shuo: Male, PhD, works at the Second Affiliated Hospital of Air Force Medical University (Tangdu Hospital), engaged in 3D printing orthopedic metal and polymer implant research. E-mail: [email protected]

Li Xiaokang: male, associate professor, associate chief physician, associate chief physician of the Department of Orthopedics, Second Affiliated Hospital of Air Force Medical University, visiting scholar at the University of California, Los Angeles. Mainly engaged in surgical treatment of bone tumors and diagnosis and treatment of bone degenerative diseases. Research direction focuses on the transformation of 3D printed orthopedic metal implants. Currently a member of the Innovation and Transformation Group of the Sarcoma Committee of the Chinese Anti-Cancer Association and a member of the Bone Tumor Group of the Chinese Orthopedic Elite Association. E-mail: [email protected]

Guo Zheng: Male, professor, chief physician, dean of Tangdu Orthopedic Hospital, Air Force Medical University (formerly the Fourth Military Medical University), director of orthopedics, and director of the PLA Bone Tumor Research Institute. He is the leader of the Digital Orthopedics Group of the Medical Engineering Branch of the Chinese Medical Association, vice chairman of the 3D Printing Professional Committee of the Orthopedic Physician Branch of the Chinese Medical Association, vice chairman of the Bone Tumor and Bone Metastasis Professional Committee of the Chinese Anti-Cancer Association, leader of the Pelvic Group of the Sarcoma Professional Committee of the Chinese Anti-Cancer Association, and vice chairman of the Bone Tumor Professional Committee of the PLA Orthopedics Society. He is currently the chief scientist of a national key R&D program project (clinical and clinical translational research on a new generation of spinal biomaterials and implants), a professor at the Bone Tumor Research Center of the Massachusetts General Hospital of Harvard University, and once organized the "Medical Metals" column of "Metal World". He is engaged in clinical digital technology (navigation, 3D printing, robots) to assist in surgical treatment of bone tumors and innovative research and development of new biomaterials and implants. E-mail: [email protected]

Zhang Jianbin: male, associate professor, works at the School of Materials Science and Engineering of Lanzhou University of Technology, the National Key Laboratory of Nonferrous Metal Materials of Gansu Province, and concurrently serves as the deputy director of the High-tech Achievement Promotion and Transformation Center. He is engaged in the research of the microstructure, properties and surface modification of metal materials. E-mail: [email protected]